theoretical chemistry

அறிமுறையிரசாயனவியல்

ilmu kimia teori

CHEM química teórica f

தேற்றவிரசாயனவியல்

1. 1) теоретический

2) идеальный; абсолютный; гипотетический

3) умозрительный, спекулятивный

2. склонный к теоретизированию; аналитический

அறிமுறை

அறிமுறை

கோட்பாட்டு

கருத்தியல்

அறிமுறையான

அறிமுறைக்குரிய

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Transcribing Complex, ТК (торговая компания)

2) Компьютерная техника: Table Caption, Terminal Control, Text Compression, Transaction Computer, Transaction Controller, tertiary centre

3) Биология: total capacity

4) Авиация: Transit Corridor (NATO) (Air lanes established for transit in the rear area of the battle theater), Test cell

5) Медицина: Therapeutic Community

6) Американизм: Tax Credit, Time Conflict, Total Control, Total Costs, Trade Classification, Trilateral Commission

7) Спорт: командные соревнования

8) Военный термин: Tactical Computer, Tank Company, Tank Corps, Target Concept, Test Case, Test Comprehensiveness, Thin Client, Tiger Cat, Tin Can, Total Confusion, Total Conversion, Transition Component, Transport Command, Transport Cradles, Transportation Coordinator, Transportation Corps, Tunnel Coordinates, Type Code, tactical command, tactical control, tactical coordinator, tank car, tank commander, target chart, target classification, target complex, team chief, technical center, technical characteristics, technical circular, technical committee, technical communications, technical control, temporary commission, terminal correction, terrain clearance, terrain correction, test center, test chief, test console, test control, test controller, test coordinator, time constant, topographic center, torpedo control, total cost, track commander, traffic control, training cadre, training camp, training center, training chest, training company, training cost, transit corridor, transport capacity, transport column, transport company, transport, cargo, transportation chief, travel card, trial counsel, troop, troop carrier, troop commander, truncated cone, till countermanded, тактический компьютер

9) Техника: Threshold Circuit, Transmitting Circuits, technicolor, telecommunications, telegraph central office, telegraph repeater set, telephone central office, telephone repeater set, temporary correction, test categories, tetracycle, thermal compression, time compensation, timing channel, toll center, tone control, track chambers division, tracking camera, tracking console, tracking cross, traffic control unit, transceiver code, военное обозначение буксируемых кабелей, Tilting Cylinder( наклонный цилиндр)

10) Шутливое выражение: Terror Cat, Tickle Club, Timothy Club, Tiny Chris, Total Clown, Tough Cat

11) Химия: Temperature Compensated, Theoretical Chemistry, tungsten carbide( карбид вольфрама; твёрдый сплав)

12) Математика: Transitive Closure

13) Религия: Teen Christians, The Calling, The Chosen, The Crossover, Transcend Christ, Trenton Catholic, True Christians

14) Юридический термин: Tax Court, Tribal Council

15) Экономика: traveller's check, общие издержки (total costs)

16) Страхование: Transcontainer

17) Автомобильный термин: turbocharger, traction control

18) Биржевой термин: Top Cap

19) Ветеринария: Teeth And Claws, Tubby Cat

20) Грубое выражение: Tiny Cock, Too Chubby

21) Металлургия: Telescoping Collar

22) Политика: United Arab Emirates

23) Телекоммуникации: Telephone Call, Terminating Channel, Transmission Control, Transport Connection, telecommunications closet, Transmitted Signal Element Timing (DCE Source, EIA-232)

24) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Turkey), Tactical Controller, Teachers College, Telemeter Channel, Time Check, Training Camp / Centre, Training Cargo, Trusteeship Council, Turks and Caicos Islands, tape core, temperature compensating, terra cotta, thread cutting, timed closing, toilet case, top chord

25) Текстиль: Two Clusters

26) Университет: Test Consequence, Test Curve

27) Физика: Temperature Control, Thermal Control

28) Физиология: Thecal Cell, Throat culture, Tissue Culture, Total Cholesterol

29) Электроника: Technical Component, Tesla Coil, Timely Cycle, True Complement

30) Вычислительная техника: Terminal Computer, Transaction Capabilities, teracycle, time of computation, transfer complete, transfer control, transmission controller, transmission convergence, Task Committee (IFIP), Technical Committee (ISO, OASIS)

31) Нефть: service water storage tank, time charter, tool closed, top choke, tubing choke, верхний штуцер (top choke), карбид вольфрама (tungsten carbide), скважинный инструмент закрыт (tool closed), устьевой штуцер (top choke), штуцер насосно-компрессорной колонны (tubing choke)

32) Иммунология: Treatment Coefficient

33) Биохимия: Tetracycline

34) Транспорт: Tariff Class, Tercel Coupe, Tire Chalked, Toilet Car, Touring Car, Touring Coupe, Trans Canada, Transportation Centre, Truck Camper, Truck Crane, Turbo Compound, Twin Cam, Twin Carburettor, Two Cycle

35) Пищевая промышленность: Totally Crunchy, Tropical Chicken, Tuff Cat, Tuna Casserole

36) Воздухоплавание: Terminal Control Areas

37) Фирменный знак: Techno- Components, Theatre Company, Tramway Company, Transport Canada

38) СМИ: Textual Criticism, The Times Courier, Title Card, Top Celeb

39) Деловая лексика: Tech Center, Too Cheap

40) Бурение: инструмент закрыт (tool closed; скважинный)

41) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: toxic chemical, контроллер температуры (Temperature controller), регулятор температуры (temperature controller)

42) Образование: Teens Conference

43) Инвестиции: traveler's check

44) Сетевые технологии: Transport Convergence

45) ЕБРР: technical cooperation

46) Полимеры: technically classified, temperature coefficient, thermocouple, time closing, total carbon

47) Автоматика: teflon composite

48) Полупроводники: Curie temperature

49) Сахалин Р: Temperature controller, temperature controller

50) Химическое оружие: Ton container, to contain, toxicity characteristic, type classification

51) Макаров: terminal controller, terminate counting, thermal conductivity, thermocompression, time code

52) Безопасность: Transform Coding

53) Расширение файла: Tape Command, Termcap, Turbo C Configuration file

54) SAP.тех. экранная таблица

55) Логистика: treatment charge (авиапоставка), транспортная служба

56) Строительные материалы: tungsten carbide

57) Электротехника: temperature compensation, test chamber, test conductor, thermocurrent, tinned copper, transient conditions, trip coil

58) Фантастика Terra Crusher

59) Имена и фамилии: Tamara Cole, Tom Clark, Tom Cruise

60) Молекулярная биология: tropocollagen

61) Общественная организация: Tomorrow's Child

62) Должность: Technical Communication, Technology Consultant, Tennis Coach, Top Cop

63) Чат: Thread Count, Too Cool, Too Cute, Too Cynical, Topic Centric, Totally Clueless, Tough Cookie

64) Правительство: Traverse City, Twin Cities

65) NYSE. Thailand Capital Fund, Inc.

66) НАСА: Telecommand, Terrestrial Class

67) Программное обеспечение: Tab Crawler

68) СМС: Take Care

69) Международные перевозки: traffic conference area (IATA)

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Transcribing Complex, ТК (торговая компания)

2) Компьютерная техника: Table Caption, Terminal Control, Text Compression, Transaction Computer, Transaction Controller, tertiary centre

3) Биология: total capacity

4) Авиация: Transit Corridor (NATO) (Air lanes established for transit in the rear area of the battle theater), Test cell

5) Медицина: Therapeutic Community

6) Американизм: Tax Credit, Time Conflict, Total Control, Total Costs, Trade Classification, Trilateral Commission

7) Спорт: командные соревнования

8) Военный термин: Tactical Computer, Tank Company, Tank Corps, Target Concept, Test Case, Test Comprehensiveness, Thin Client, Tiger Cat, Tin Can, Total Confusion, Total Conversion, Transition Component, Transport Command, Transport Cradles, Transportation Coordinator, Transportation Corps, Tunnel Coordinates, Type Code, tactical command, tactical control, tactical coordinator, tank car, tank commander, target chart, target classification, target complex, team chief, technical center, technical characteristics, technical circular, technical committee, technical communications, technical control, temporary commission, terminal correction, terrain clearance, terrain correction, test center, test chief, test console, test control, test controller, test coordinator, time constant, topographic center, torpedo control, total cost, track commander, traffic control, training cadre, training camp, training center, training chest, training company, training cost, transit corridor, transport capacity, transport column, transport company, transport, cargo, transportation chief, travel card, trial counsel, troop, troop carrier, troop commander, truncated cone, till countermanded, тактический компьютер

9) Техника: Threshold Circuit, Transmitting Circuits, technicolor, telecommunications, telegraph central office, telegraph repeater set, telephone central office, telephone repeater set, temporary correction, test categories, tetracycle, thermal compression, time compensation, timing channel, toll center, tone control, track chambers division, tracking camera, tracking console, tracking cross, traffic control unit, transceiver code, военное обозначение буксируемых кабелей, Tilting Cylinder( наклонный цилиндр)

10) Шутливое выражение: Terror Cat, Tickle Club, Timothy Club, Tiny Chris, Total Clown, Tough Cat

11) Химия: Temperature Compensated, Theoretical Chemistry, tungsten carbide( карбид вольфрама; твёрдый сплав)

12) Математика: Transitive Closure

13) Религия: Teen Christians, The Calling, The Chosen, The Crossover, Transcend Christ, Trenton Catholic, True Christians

14) Юридический термин: Tax Court, Tribal Council

15) Экономика: traveller's check, общие издержки (total costs)

16) Страхование: Transcontainer

17) Автомобильный термин: turbocharger, traction control

18) Биржевой термин: Top Cap

19) Ветеринария: Teeth And Claws, Tubby Cat

20) Грубое выражение: Tiny Cock, Too Chubby

21) Металлургия: Telescoping Collar

22) Политика: United Arab Emirates

23) Телекоммуникации: Telephone Call, Terminating Channel, Transmission Control, Transport Connection, telecommunications closet, Transmitted Signal Element Timing (DCE Source, EIA-232)

24) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Turkey), Tactical Controller, Teachers College, Telemeter Channel, Time Check, Training Camp / Centre, Training Cargo, Trusteeship Council, Turks and Caicos Islands, tape core, temperature compensating, terra cotta, thread cutting, timed closing, toilet case, top chord

25) Текстиль: Two Clusters

26) Университет: Test Consequence, Test Curve

27) Физика: Temperature Control, Thermal Control

28) Физиология: Thecal Cell, Throat culture, Tissue Culture, Total Cholesterol

29) Электроника: Technical Component, Tesla Coil, Timely Cycle, True Complement

30) Вычислительная техника: Terminal Computer, Transaction Capabilities, teracycle, time of computation, transfer complete, transfer control, transmission controller, transmission convergence, Task Committee (IFIP), Technical Committee (ISO, OASIS)

31) Нефть: service water storage tank, time charter, tool closed, top choke, tubing choke, верхний штуцер (top choke), карбид вольфрама (tungsten carbide), скважинный инструмент закрыт (tool closed), устьевой штуцер (top choke), штуцер насосно-компрессорной колонны (tubing choke)

32) Иммунология: Treatment Coefficient

33) Биохимия: Tetracycline

34) Транспорт: Tariff Class, Tercel Coupe, Tire Chalked, Toilet Car, Touring Car, Touring Coupe, Trans Canada, Transportation Centre, Truck Camper, Truck Crane, Turbo Compound, Twin Cam, Twin Carburettor, Two Cycle

35) Пищевая промышленность: Totally Crunchy, Tropical Chicken, Tuff Cat, Tuna Casserole

36) Воздухоплавание: Terminal Control Areas

37) Фирменный знак: Techno- Components, Theatre Company, Tramway Company, Transport Canada

38) СМИ: Textual Criticism, The Times Courier, Title Card, Top Celeb

39) Деловая лексика: Tech Center, Too Cheap

40) Бурение: инструмент закрыт (tool closed; скважинный)

41) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: toxic chemical, контроллер температуры (Temperature controller), регулятор температуры (temperature controller)

42) Образование: Teens Conference

43) Инвестиции: traveler's check

44) Сетевые технологии: Transport Convergence

45) ЕБРР: technical cooperation

46) Полимеры: technically classified, temperature coefficient, thermocouple, time closing, total carbon

47) Автоматика: teflon composite

48) Полупроводники: Curie temperature

49) Сахалин Р: Temperature controller, temperature controller

50) Химическое оружие: Ton container, to contain, toxicity characteristic, type classification

51) Макаров: terminal controller, terminate counting, thermal conductivity, thermocompression, time code

52) Безопасность: Transform Coding

53) Расширение файла: Tape Command, Termcap, Turbo C Configuration file

54) SAP.тех. экранная таблица

55) Логистика: treatment charge (авиапоставка), транспортная служба

56) Строительные материалы: tungsten carbide

57) Электротехника: temperature compensation, test chamber, test conductor, thermocurrent, tinned copper, transient conditions, trip coil

58) Фантастика Terra Crusher

59) Имена и фамилии: Tamara Cole, Tom Clark, Tom Cruise

60) Молекулярная биология: tropocollagen

61) Общественная организация: Tomorrow's Child

62) Должность: Technical Communication, Technology Consultant, Tennis Coach, Top Cop

63) Чат: Thread Count, Too Cool, Too Cute, Too Cynical, Topic Centric, Totally Clueless, Tough Cookie

64) Правительство: Traverse City, Twin Cities

65) NYSE. Thailand Capital Fund, Inc.

66) НАСА: Telecommand, Terrestrial Class

67) Программное обеспечение: Tab Crawler

68) СМС: Take Care

69) Международные перевозки: traffic conference area (IATA)

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Transcribing Complex, ТК (торговая компания)

2) Компьютерная техника: Table Caption, Terminal Control, Text Compression, Transaction Computer, Transaction Controller, tertiary centre

3) Биология: total capacity

4) Авиация: Transit Corridor (NATO) (Air lanes established for transit in the rear area of the battle theater), Test cell

5) Медицина: Therapeutic Community

6) Американизм: Tax Credit, Time Conflict, Total Control, Total Costs, Trade Classification, Trilateral Commission

7) Спорт: командные соревнования

8) Военный термин: Tactical Computer, Tank Company, Tank Corps, Target Concept, Test Case, Test Comprehensiveness, Thin Client, Tiger Cat, Tin Can, Total Confusion, Total Conversion, Transition Component, Transport Command, Transport Cradles, Transportation Coordinator, Transportation Corps, Tunnel Coordinates, Type Code, tactical command, tactical control, tactical coordinator, tank car, tank commander, target chart, target classification, target complex, team chief, technical center, technical characteristics, technical circular, technical committee, technical communications, technical control, temporary commission, terminal correction, terrain clearance, terrain correction, test center, test chief, test console, test control, test controller, test coordinator, time constant, topographic center, torpedo control, total cost, track commander, traffic control, training cadre, training camp, training center, training chest, training company, training cost, transit corridor, transport capacity, transport column, transport company, transport, cargo, transportation chief, travel card, trial counsel, troop, troop carrier, troop commander, truncated cone, till countermanded, тактический компьютер

9) Техника: Threshold Circuit, Transmitting Circuits, technicolor, telecommunications, telegraph central office, telegraph repeater set, telephone central office, telephone repeater set, temporary correction, test categories, tetracycle, thermal compression, time compensation, timing channel, toll center, tone control, track chambers division, tracking camera, tracking console, tracking cross, traffic control unit, transceiver code, военное обозначение буксируемых кабелей, Tilting Cylinder( наклонный цилиндр)

10) Шутливое выражение: Terror Cat, Tickle Club, Timothy Club, Tiny Chris, Total Clown, Tough Cat

11) Химия: Temperature Compensated, Theoretical Chemistry, tungsten carbide( карбид вольфрама; твёрдый сплав)

12) Математика: Transitive Closure

13) Религия: Teen Christians, The Calling, The Chosen, The Crossover, Transcend Christ, Trenton Catholic, True Christians

14) Юридический термин: Tax Court, Tribal Council

15) Экономика: traveller's check, общие издержки (total costs)

16) Страхование: Transcontainer

17) Автомобильный термин: turbocharger, traction control

18) Биржевой термин: Top Cap

19) Ветеринария: Teeth And Claws, Tubby Cat

20) Грубое выражение: Tiny Cock, Too Chubby

21) Металлургия: Telescoping Collar

22) Политика: United Arab Emirates

23) Телекоммуникации: Telephone Call, Terminating Channel, Transmission Control, Transport Connection, telecommunications closet, Transmitted Signal Element Timing (DCE Source, EIA-232)

24) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Turkey), Tactical Controller, Teachers College, Telemeter Channel, Time Check, Training Camp / Centre, Training Cargo, Trusteeship Council, Turks and Caicos Islands, tape core, temperature compensating, terra cotta, thread cutting, timed closing, toilet case, top chord

25) Текстиль: Two Clusters

26) Университет: Test Consequence, Test Curve

27) Физика: Temperature Control, Thermal Control

28) Физиология: Thecal Cell, Throat culture, Tissue Culture, Total Cholesterol

29) Электроника: Technical Component, Tesla Coil, Timely Cycle, True Complement

30) Вычислительная техника: Terminal Computer, Transaction Capabilities, teracycle, time of computation, transfer complete, transfer control, transmission controller, transmission convergence, Task Committee (IFIP), Technical Committee (ISO, OASIS)

31) Нефть: service water storage tank, time charter, tool closed, top choke, tubing choke, верхний штуцер (top choke), карбид вольфрама (tungsten carbide), скважинный инструмент закрыт (tool closed), устьевой штуцер (top choke), штуцер насосно-компрессорной колонны (tubing choke)

32) Иммунология: Treatment Coefficient

33) Биохимия: Tetracycline

34) Транспорт: Tariff Class, Tercel Coupe, Tire Chalked, Toilet Car, Touring Car, Touring Coupe, Trans Canada, Transportation Centre, Truck Camper, Truck Crane, Turbo Compound, Twin Cam, Twin Carburettor, Two Cycle

35) Пищевая промышленность: Totally Crunchy, Tropical Chicken, Tuff Cat, Tuna Casserole

36) Воздухоплавание: Terminal Control Areas

37) Фирменный знак: Techno- Components, Theatre Company, Tramway Company, Transport Canada

38) СМИ: Textual Criticism, The Times Courier, Title Card, Top Celeb

39) Деловая лексика: Tech Center, Too Cheap

40) Бурение: инструмент закрыт (tool closed; скважинный)

41) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: toxic chemical, контроллер температуры (Temperature controller), регулятор температуры (temperature controller)

42) Образование: Teens Conference

43) Инвестиции: traveler's check

44) Сетевые технологии: Transport Convergence

45) ЕБРР: technical cooperation

46) Полимеры: technically classified, temperature coefficient, thermocouple, time closing, total carbon

47) Автоматика: teflon composite

48) Полупроводники: Curie temperature

49) Сахалин Р: Temperature controller, temperature controller

50) Химическое оружие: Ton container, to contain, toxicity characteristic, type classification

51) Макаров: terminal controller, terminate counting, thermal conductivity, thermocompression, time code

52) Безопасность: Transform Coding

53) Расширение файла: Tape Command, Termcap, Turbo C Configuration file

54) SAP.тех. экранная таблица

55) Логистика: treatment charge (авиапоставка), транспортная служба

56) Строительные материалы: tungsten carbide

57) Электротехника: temperature compensation, test chamber, test conductor, thermocurrent, tinned copper, transient conditions, trip coil

58) Фантастика Terra Crusher

59) Имена и фамилии: Tamara Cole, Tom Clark, Tom Cruise

60) Молекулярная биология: tropocollagen

61) Общественная организация: Tomorrow's Child

62) Должность: Technical Communication, Technology Consultant, Tennis Coach, Top Cop

63) Чат: Thread Count, Too Cool, Too Cute, Too Cynical, Topic Centric, Totally Clueless, Tough Cookie

64) Правительство: Traverse City, Twin Cities

65) NYSE. Thailand Capital Fund, Inc.

66) НАСА: Telecommand, Terrestrial Class

67) Программное обеспечение: Tab Crawler

68) СМС: Take Care

69) Международные перевозки: traffic conference area (IATA)

(lit. or fig.) rein

* * *

1) (not mixed with anything especially dirty or less valuable: pure gold.) pur

2) (clean, especially morally: pure thoughts.) rein

3) (complete; absolute: a pure accident.) völlig

4) ((of sounds) clear; keeping in tune: She sang in a high pure tone.) rein

•

- academic.ru/59133/purely">purely

* * *

[pjʊəʳ, AM pjʊr]

1. (unmixed) rein, pur

\pure alcohol reiner [o fachspr absoluter] Alkohol

\pure chocolate unverfälschte Schokolade

\pure cotton reine Baumwolle

\pure gold reines [o pures] Gold, Feingold nt fachspr

\pure orange juice/honey reiner Orangensaft/Honig

I have \pure Irish ancestry ich bin rein irischer Abstammung; ZOOL (purebred) reinrassig fachspr

\pure German shepherd reinrassiger deutscher Schäferhund

2. (clean) air, water sauber, klar

3. ( fig: utter) rein, pur, wahr

the film was \pure Disney der Film war Disney pur

that's \pure guesswork das sind bloße Vermutungen

the hot bath was \pure bliss das heiße Bad war eine wahre Wohltat

that was \pure hell for us das war die reinste Hölle für uns

\pure chance reiner Zufall

a \pure delight eine reine [o wahre] Freude

\pure insanity glatter Wahnsinn, kompletter Schwachsinn fam

for \pure joy aus reinem [o nur zum] Vergnügen

\pure luck reines Glück, reiner Zufall

\pure and utter rubbish ausgemachter Blödsinn

\pure and simple schlicht und einfach

4. (free of evil) unschuldig, rein

\pure feelings reine Gefühle

to be \pure in heart ein reines Herz haben geh

\pure intentions ehrliche [o geh lautere] Absichten

\pure motives uneigennützige Motive

5. (non-sexual) rein geh, keusch

6. (virginal) rein geh, unberührt

7. MUS (in tune) rein

8. LING (single-sounded) monophthongisch fachspr

a \pure vowel ein Monophthong m fachspr

9. (abstract) rein, theoretisch

\pure geometry projektive [o synthetische] Geometrie fachspr

\pure mathematics reine [o abstrakte] Mathematik fachspr

\pure reason reine Vernunft

as \pure reason that makes perfect sense rein theoretisch ist das vollkommen klar

* * *

adj (+er)

1) rein; motive ehrlich, lauter (geh); (= utter) madness, nonsense etc also reinste(r, s)

2) (= theoretical) chemistry rein, theoretisch; maths, research, science rein

* * *

pure [pjʊə(r)] adj (adv → purely)

1. a) pur, unvermischt, rein (Seide etc):

pure alcohol reiner Alkohol;

pure gold reines oder pures Gold;

pure white reines Weiß

b) lupenrein (Diamant)

2. rein, makellos:

pure Italian reines Italienisch;

a pure friendship eine reine Freundschaft

3. rein, sauber (Hände etc)

4. (moralisch) rein:

a) unschuldig, unbefleckt

b) unberührt, keusch (Mädchen)

5. rein, unverfälscht

6. MUS

a) (ton)rein

b) obertonfrei

7. klar (Stil)

8. BIOL

a) reinrassig, -blütig

b) homozygot, reinerbig:

pure line reine Abstammungslinie

9. rein, theoretisch:

pure science reine Wissenschaft

10. rein (Kunst)

11. pur, rein, völlig (Unsinn etc):

a pure formality eine reine Förmlichkeit;

laziness pure and simple reine Faulheit

12. rein, pur (Zufall):

by pure accident ( oder chance) rein zufällig

13. rein (Sprachlaut)

* * *

(lit. or fig.) rein

* * *

echt adj.

rein adj.

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology

[br]

[br]

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Haber's father was a manufacturer of dyestuffs, so he studied organic chemistry at Berlin and Heidelberg universities to equip him to enter his father's firm. But his interest turned to physical chemistry and remained there throughout his life. He became Assistant at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe in 1894; his first work there was on pyrolysis and electrochemistry, and he published his Grundrisse der technischen Electrochemie in 1898. Haber became famous for thorough and illuminating theoretical studies in areas of growing practical importance. He rose through the academic ranks and was appointed a full professor in 1906. In 1912 he was also appointed Director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Dahlem, outside Berlin.

Early in the twentieth century Haber invented a process for the synthesis of ammonia. The English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes (1832–1919) had warned of the danger of mass hunger because the deposits of Chilean nitrate were becoming exhausted and nitrogenous fertilizers would not suffice for the world's growing population. A solution lay in the use of the nitrogen in the air, and the efforts of chemists centred on ways of converting it to usable nitrate. Haber was aware of contemporary work on the fixation of nitrogen by the cyanamide and arc processes, but in 1904 he turned to the study of ammonia formation from its elements, nitrogen and hydrogen. During 1907–9 Haber found that the yield of ammonia reached an industrially viable level if the reaction took place under a pressure of 150–200 atmospheres and a temperature of 600°C (1,112° F) in the presence of a suitable catalyst—first osmium, later uranium. He devised an apparatus in which a mixture of the gases was pumped through a converter, in which the ammonia formed was withdrawn while the unchanged gases were recirculated. By 1913, Haber's collaborator, Carl Bosch had succeeded in raising this laboratory process to the industrial scale. It was the first successful high-pressure industrial chemical process, and solved the nitrogen problem. The outbreak of the First World War directed the work of the institute in Dahlem to military purposes, and Haber was placed in charge of chemical warfare. In this capacity, he developed poisonous gases as well as the means of defence against them, such as gas masks. The synthetic-ammonia process was diverted to produce nitric acid for explosives. The great benefits and achievement of the Haber-Bosch process were recognized by the award in 1919 of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, but on account of Haber's association with chemical warfare, British, French and American scientists denounced the award; this only added to the sense of bitterness he already felt at his country's defeat in the war. He concentrated on the theoretical studies for which he was renowned, in particular on pyrolysis and autoxidation, and both the Karlsruhe and the Dahlem laboratories became international centres for discussion and research in physical chemistry.

With the Nazi takeover in 1933, Haber found that, as a Jew, he was relegated to second-class status. He did not see why he should appoint staff on account of their grandmothers instead of their ability, so he resigned his posts and went into exile. For some months he accepted hospitality in Cambridge, but he was on his way to a new post in what is now Israel when he died suddenly in Basel, Switzerland.

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SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology, Weapons and armour

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His family came from Germany and he was the son of a music master. He first became interested in science at the age of 14, when visiting his mineralogist uncle in Hamburg, and studied chemistry at the Royal Polytechnic Institution in London. In 1845 he became one of the twenty-six founding students, under A.W.von Hofmann, of the Royal College of Chemistry. Such was his aptitude for the subject that within two years he became von Hermann's assistant and demonstrator. In 1851 Abel was appointed Lecturer in Chemistry, succeeding Michael Faraday, at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and it was while there that he wrote his Handbook of Chemistry, which was co-authored by his assistant, Charles Bloxam.

Abel's four years at the Royal Military Academy served to foster his interest in explosives, but it was during his thirty-four years, beginning in 1854, as Ordnance Chemist at the Royal Arsenal and at Woolwich that he consolidated and developed his reputation as one of the international leaders in his field. In 1860 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, but it was his studies during the 1870s into the chemical changes that occur during explosions, and which were the subject of numerous papers, that formed the backbone of his work. It was he who established the means of storing gun-cotton without the danger of spontaneous explosion, but he also developed devices (the Abel Open Test and Close Test) for measuring the flashpoint of petroleum. He also became interested in metal alloys, carrying out much useful work on their composition. A further avenue of research occurred in 1881 when he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission set up to investigate safety in mines after the explosion that year in the Sealham Colliery. His resultant study on dangerous dusts did much to further understanding on the use of explosives underground and to improve the safety record of the coal-mining industry. The achievement for which he is most remembered, however, came in 1889, when, in conjunction with Sir James Dewar, he invented cordite. This stable explosive, made of wood fibre, nitric acid and glycerine, had the vital advantage of being a "smokeless powder", which meant that, unlike the traditional ammunition propellant, gunpowder ("black powder"), the firer's position was not given away when the weapon was discharged. Although much of the preliminary work had been done by the Frenchman Paul Vieille, it was Abel who perfected it, with the result that cordite quickly became the British Army's standard explosive.

Abel married, and was widowed, twice. He had no children, but died heaped in both scientific honours and those from a grateful country.

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